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Theme B: Religion and Life.
Lesson One: Origins of the Universe.
The Big Bang theory is currently the leading scientific explanation for how the universe began. This theory suggests that around 13.8 billion years ago, all matter was compressed into an incredibly small, hot and dense collection of mass. A massive expansion of space suddenly took place and the condensed matter was flung in all directions. It has been expanding ever since, forming the cosmos as we know it today. As the universe expanded and cooled, the matter that had been flung in all directions became stars grouped into millions of galaxies. The size of the universe is so enormous that, even with the most advanced telescope, astronomers are unable to see its end and see for certain if this theory is correct. Much of what scientists understand about the Big Bang theory comes from mathematical theory and models.
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Christians believe that the universe didn't just make itself, but that it was designed and made by God. They believe that God created all things that exist ex nihilo- a Latin term meaning 'out of nothing'.
Genesis 1:1 - 2:3 gives one of the accounts in the Bible of how God created the universe. In the story, God created the heavens and the earth in six days and then rested on the seventh.
Did this really happen? Some Christians believe that the creation stories describe exactly how the universe was created. Fundamentalists believe that every word in the Bible has been inspired by God and is therefore correct. Some believe that everything was created in six days, but others interpret 'day' as representing a longer period of time. The Hebrew word 'yam' has different meanings. It could, for example, mean twelve hours of daylight, or a long, indefinite period of time. In contrast, liberals regard these accounts as more like parables or symbolic accounts, where the main message is that God brought into being the universe and all that is in it. These Christians might look to science to help them understand how God did this. |
Buddhist teachings neither explicitly support nor deny the Big Bang theory. Buddhism teaches that all things are dependent upon conditions (this teaching is known as 'dependent arising'). Buddhism also teaches about the cycle of samsara, which is the repeating cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth. Both of these teachings are relevant to Buddhist thinking about the origins of the universe.
Buddhism does not include belief in a God or creator. In fact, it does not teach that the universe has any origin- a point in time when the universe suddenly came into being from nothing without any cause. Instead, Buddhist teachings view the universe a bit like the cycle of life. They suggest that universes come into existence, expand and evolve, and then wither and die, over and over again without beginning or end. One universe simply replaces the next one. This means that Buddhists can accept the Big Bang theory, which does not necessarily state that there was nothing before the Big Bang happened. Scientists are unsure about what caused the Big Bang. Some scientists believe that there might be a number of universes, creating one giant multiverse, where one universe grows out of another one. This idea is very similar to Buddhist teachings. The Story of the Poisoned Arrow Buddhism does not view the origins of the universe as an important question. The Buddha himself declared it to be an unanswerable question. He said he taught only the way out of suffering, and wondering about the origins of the universe was not relevant to this. To illustrate his point he told the following story: One day a man was hit by a poisoned arrow and would only live if a doctor removed it quickly enough. His friends found a doctor to remove the arrow, but the man refused the doctor's help. He first wanted to find out who had shot the arrow. He wanted to know what type of person they were, where they came from, and what sort of bow they were using. But before the man could find out the answers to these questions, the poison took effect and the man died. Another way of thinking about this is to imagine what you would do if you were walking along a street and someone shot you in the leg. Would you first want to find out who shot you? Or would you want to find a way to stop the bleeding? |
Lesson Two: The value of the world.
How valuable is the world?
Add up the value of all the gold, diamonds, precious stones, natural resources, food produced by agriculture and industrial output in the world and it would be a mammoth total. But is that alone the value of the world? No, of course not. We cannot put a price on its value as it is our home, and provides and sustains life. As far as we know, nowhere else in our solar system can sustain life like planet Earth. Christians regard the world as a priceless gift from God, loaned to humans as a result of his love. Wow factor/Awe and wonder The view from a high mountain, the Grand Canyon, Niagara Falls, the beauty of dew glistening on a cobweb, the detail of snowflakes seen under a microscope, and the vastness of space are all examples of the awesomeness of creation. Such beauty gives a sense of amazement, awe and wonder. '' When I consider your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and the stars, which you have set in place, what is mankind that you are mindful of them, human beings that you care for them? '' Psalm 8:3-4 [NIV] The world is complex and fascinating. Caterpillars turning into butterflies, black and white cows eating green grass to produce white milk, and trees bursting into life in springtime are just a few examples of the mystery and wonder of life. How could it all happen? Christians believe that God is responsible. '' For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities -his eternal power and divine nature- have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse. ' ' Romans 7:20 [NIV] The Buddha's teaching of dependent arising is also very mysterious: if absolutely everything happens because of other things, they must be interconnected in millions of ways that nobody can even imagine. For Buddhists, this means that humans live in a vast web of interconnectedness with nature, people and all sorts of things, through time and space. Buddhists often talk about the importance of developing 'mindfulness'appreciative, non-judgemental awareness. Buddhists believe that this appreciative awareness of every passing moment can bring people deep enjoyment of the beauty and mystery in ordinary life, as well as helping people to be calm and less shaken by life's difficulties. Stewardship Imagine generously allowing a friend to live for free in a house that belongs to you. The one condition is that they look after it because it is unique and irreplaceable. However, they damage and then destroy it. This would be extremely upsetting. Christians believe that God has given humans the privilege of living on planet Earth but with the responsibility of looking after it and preventing it from being ruined. There is only one planet Earth and it cannot be replaced. This special responsibility to protect and care for the earth is known as stewardship. In the story in Genesis 2, Adam, the first man, was given the task of looking after the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2: 15). As stewards of the natural world, Christians believe that people have been appointed by God to respect and manage the world, working with nature to preserve what God has given. In return we are able to use what is provided in a sustainable way for our survival. Many Christians believe that they will be accountable to God concerning how well they looked after the Earth. Sometimes people of other religions talk about stewardship of the Earth, but this is not a Buddhist term. Traditionally a steward was someone who was paid to take care of land on behalf of its owner. Christians, for example, see the Earth as belonging to God, who has dominion over it and who has trusted them to look after it for him. Buddhism, however, does not involve belief in a creator God to whom all things belong. In the Buddhist view, nobody owns the Earth. The Buddha never talked of how the world came into being, or who owned it. He said it is just a fact that it is here and so are we. Knowing this, it is people's responsibility to develop more and more wisdom and compassion to move towards enlightenment. Buddhists also accept that humans need to take responsibility for protecting the environment and caring for all living beings. Dominion In order to manage the earth, Christians teach that humans were given the power and authority to rule over the world. This is known as having dominion. '' God blessed them and said to them, 'Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground: '' Genesis 7:28 [NIV] A minority of Christians have interpreted 'subduing the world' as meaning that people can do what they like with it and everything in it because they are in charge. The majority, however, believe that humans have been entrusted to be caretakers (stewards) of God's world. They cannot do what they like to benefit themselves if this damages something that God has made. |
The world is where we live, and it provides and sustains life. We need its resources in order to provide food, shelter, clothing and other basic necessities for ourselves. Buddhism teaches that the world is a valuable thing that belongs to nobody, but is everybody's responsibility.
There are two further reasons why Buddhists might consider the world to be so valuable: • The world provides Buddhists with all the conditions (challenges and help) that are needed in order to develop perfect wisdom and compassion, to become enlightened, and to free oneself from suffering. • The Buddha taught that there are other worlds into which it is possible to be born. Buddhist tradition teaches that to be born a human, in this particular world, is enormously fortunate, and follows many lives in other, less conscious forms. Humans are able to make ethical choices not available to other species, and thus move towards enlightenment. In this world, there was once a Buddha who explained the origins of suffering and the way to end it. Had people been born in another time and world, they might never have heard this teaching. Of course, some people in this world are much more fortunate than others. Buddhist tradition says that anyone who lives in a country free from war, where most people have enough to eat, where there is education and healthcare for everyone - and where it is possible to hear the teaching of the Buddhais among the world's most fortunate people, even if they are not rich. For all these reasons, and because they live in a society in which people are free to follow whichever faith they prefer (or none), Buddhists in Britain often say they are among the world's most fortunate people. A Are people living in Britain among the world's most fortunate people? '' Where shall I find such favourable circumstances again? The arising of a Buddha, Faith, the human state itself, The capacity to practise skilful deeds, Health and this day With food and freedom from disaster. '' The Bodhicaryavatara, chapter 4, verses 15-16 |
Lesson Three: Origins of Human Life.
The theory of evolution is the leading scientific theory explaining how life began and then developed. It was first brought to the public's attention in 1859 when the scientist Charles Darwin published a book called On the Origin of Species. In this book Darwin suggested that all life in the world has gradually developed over billions of years from the first single-celled organisms. These organisms originally appeared in the sea. Over a long period of time they gradually evolved (changed) into other species. Darwin argued that the earliest forms of life developed into more complex ones through the process of adaptation. In a population of animals, one animal might have slightly different characteristics that give it a better chance of survival than the rest. It will be more likely to reproduce and pass on those characteristics to its offspring. Over a very long period of time, these characteristics will gradually spread throughout the population and the species will change into a new one. According to the theory of evolution, humans evolved from ape-like ancestors over a period of about six million years. Some Christians in England were outraged by this idea when Darwin first proposed it, because to them it seemed to go against Christian teachings about God creating the world and human life. What do Christians think? Generally most atheists accept the theory of evolution because they think it best explains how life has developed on earth. Unlike Christians they do not need to worry about what the theory implies about God's role in creation, and think that Charles Darwin was right to point out that life adapts and changes to survive in new challenging environments. Fundamentalist Christians believe that the origin of human life was exactly as recorded in Genesis, with God creating each species separately. While some accept that adaptation can occur within a species, they do not believe there is enough evidence to prove that creatures evolve (i.e. change from one species to another). Some Christians believe in God as the creator but also accept the theory of evolution. They believe the Bible is concerned with 'why' it happened while scientists are concerned with 'how' it happened. Some Christians say it happened because God designed and created the beginnings of life and set everything in motion to develop over the course of history. They believe that evolution is the way God designed life to advance and evolve. |
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Adam and Eve
In the story in Genesis 1, God created male and female humans on the final day of creation. '' So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. '' Genesis 7:27[NIV] The story in Genesis 2 gives a different account of the creation of human beings. According to Genesis 2, Adam was formed by God from the soil and God breathed life into him. Adam was given the task of looking after a wonderful garden called Eden and was given the instruction not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Then God created the animals and birds and finally a helper for Adam. While Adam was sleeping, God took one of his ribs and formed Eve, the first woman. The intention was that they would live in a close relationship with God. Some Christians believe that this story is literally true and that the whole human race is descended from Adam and Eve. Other Christians would say that it is not meant to be a scientific account but is designed to show that humans are very special to God, created by him in his own image. Being in the image of God does not mean being physically the same as God. It means that humans have a spiritual nature like God, unlike the rest of creation, so are able to relate to God in a special way. People have a moral goodness within them which is like their creator. |
Though early Buddhist scriptures do contain creation stories, most Buddhists would regard these as mythological and not to be taken literally. Instead they accept current scientific thinking about how the Earth and life on it came into existence.
The Buddha said that anything can come into existence when all the necessary conditions are there. When those conditions change, so do the things they give rise to. For example, seeds germinate and grow into plants when light, oxygen and moisture are present, and they die when any of those conditions are removed. This just happens. No creator or God makes it happen. This means that Buddhists do not use the terms 'creator' or 'creation'. It is the same with the Earth and life on it. Buddhism teaches that it is not possible to identify a beginning or end to the Earth as we know it. We don't know what came before it, but at some point atmospheric conditions caused it to come into being. Then when the conditions were right on Earth, plants and animals came into being. Life on Earth has continued to evolve ever since. Today, conditions continue to change, and we can see the effect on plant and animal life. As with everything else, Buddhists would say the Earth is not a fixed thing. It is in a constant process of change, millions of years old. '' For here there is no Brahma God, Creator of the round of births, Phenomena alone flow on Cause and component their condition. '' The Visuddhimagga, p. 603 |
Lesson Four: Use and abuse of the environment.
The rapid growth in the world's population is putting the environment under extreme pressure. Two of the major environmental problems facing people today are the increase in pollution and the increase in the consumption of natural resources.
Pollution damages the environment and contributes to global warming. It can come in many forms. Fumes from factories and vehicles can contribute to global warming and acid rain. Waste that is dumped into the sea can have a devastating effect on marine life. Chemicals that get into the ground can poison wildlife and contaminate people's food. Despite laws to limit pollution and attempts to clean up the environment, it continues to be a problem as technology advances and the world's population grows. Earth's growing population also means that natural resources are being used up more quickly. These are materials that are found in nature which can be used by people to make more complex products. Many natural resources are non-renewable. This means that the world cannot produce them as quickly as people are using them up. For example, oil is a very valuable natural resource that takes millions of years to form in the ground. At the rate of current consumption, it is estimated that there is enough oil left for about 50 years. After this the world may have to adapt considerably in order to live without it. Worldwide over 90 million barrels of oil are used a day. That is roughly 14,310,000,000 litres of oil a day. The USA and China use the most oil. The Institute of Mechanical Engineers reports that we have enough oil left for about 40 years at the current rate of consumption. Once used, it is gone forever. The problem of deforestation is also a serious one. Forests (including tropical rainforests) are fast being cut down to make the land available for other uses or to provide timber. Around 7.3 million hectares of forest, roughly the size of the country of Panama, are lost each year. It has been reported that, in 2015, trees covering an area more than seven times the size of New York City were cleared from the Amazon rainforest in Brazil. Many other non-renewable resources are also being used up very quickly, and once they are gone the whole world may have to adapt quite drastically in order to live without them |
Scientists are developing alternatives to fossil fuels that allow us to generate electricity through wind, wave power and the sun. However, wind turbines only generate power when the wind blows and some people believe that they spoil the landscape. Wave power needs more research and is currently very expensive, and solar power is only generated if the climatic conditions are right. While renewable energy sources can theoretically give us unlimited energy, in practice there are currently sustainable, renewable energy a number of problems with them, which is why conserving energy is so important to both Christians and non-Christians alike.
How can Christians help the planet? Christians believe they should avoid waste, conserve energy and reduce the demand for natural resources. Here are a few of the ways this can be done: • walking, cycling or using public transport instead of the car • selecting products that don't have a lot of packaging • turning off lights that are not being used • reusing bags when shopping • donating second-hand clothes, toys and furniture to charity shops • recycling waste. |
The Assisi and Ohito meetings
Leaders from five different world religions were brought together in 1986 by the World Wildlife Fund, to celebrate its 25th anniversary. They met in Assisi (in Italy) to discuss how their faiths could and should help to care for the environment. Another meeting in Ohito (in Japan) in 199 5 brought together religious leaders and environmental scientists.
At these meetings Christians said that being in charge of creation does not give people the right to abuse, spoil, waste or destroy what God has made, as humans are only the tenants of God's world (Leviticus 25:23). Thoughtless exploitation should be opposed.
Leaders from five different world religions were brought together in 1986 by the World Wildlife Fund, to celebrate its 25th anniversary. They met in Assisi (in Italy) to discuss how their faiths could and should help to care for the environment. Another meeting in Ohito (in Japan) in 199 5 brought together religious leaders and environmental scientists.
At these meetings Christians said that being in charge of creation does not give people the right to abuse, spoil, waste or destroy what God has made, as humans are only the tenants of God's world (Leviticus 25:23). Thoughtless exploitation should be opposed.
Many Buddhists are aware of the importance of avoiding damage to their environment. Here are some of the reasons why:
' I believe that not only should we keep our relationship with our other fellow human beings very gentle and non-violent, but it is also very important to extend that kind of attitude to the natural environment. '' Tenzin Gyatso (the Dalai Lama) 1. The concept of dependent arising teaches that everything depends on other things. We live in a complex network of people, animals and plants, all of whom depend in various ways on a healthy planet to survive. 2. The second noble truth is that suffering is caused by greed. The Buddha encouraged people to practise contentment, having just as much as they need for a simple but dignified life. Taking too much from the environment goes against this teaching. 3. The first of the five moral precepts is to avoid causing harm to any living being. This means looking after the Earth so that other people and living things, and those who come after us, can have a planet worth living on. 4. Making efforts to care for others is part of the Buddhist path of training that leads people gradually towards enlightenment. This includes caring for the Earth and everything that depends on it. '' In order to protect the environment we must protect ourselves. We protect ourselves by opposing selfishness with generosity, ignorance with wisdom, and hatred with loving kindness. Selflessness, mindfulness, compassion and wisdom are the essence of Buddhism. We train in Buddhist meditation which enables us to be aware of the effects of our actions, including those destructive to our environment. '' Faith in Conservation (Palmer and Finlay) |
Lesson Five: Pollution
Pollution puts the health of humans, animals and plants at risk. However, despite laws to limit pollutants and attempts to clean up the environment, pollution continues to be a problem as technology advances and the world's population grows. There are many forms of pollution, of which a few include:
A Smoke from factory chimneys • Air pollution- caused mainly by fumes from factories and vehicles. Long-term exposure can lead to asthma attacks, lung cancer and other diseases. It also causes global warming, climate change and acid rain. • Land pollution- caused by the ineffective disposal of waste. When chemicals enter the earth this can poison wildlife, make farming less efficient and result in contaminated food. • Water pollution- caused by dumping waste into the sea. It can have a devastating effect on marine life. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, for example, released over 750 million litres of oil into the sea and killed thousands of birds and marine animals. |
'' The earth is the LORD'S, and everything in it. '' Psalm 24:7 [NIV]
'' Every human act of irresponsibility towards creatures is an abomination [disgrace]. '' Christian statement in the Assisi Declarations on Nature Christians believe the world is on loan to humans, who have been given the responsibility by God to look after it (Genesis 1 :28). The parable of the talents/ bags of gold (Matthew 25) warns that when God returns he will judge how responsible people have been. Polluting the planet is not good stewardship, as God's creation is being abused. Pollution also harms people, so it is not 'loving one's neighbour' or considering future generations. Christians, out of respect for God's creation, believe they must help to protect the natural world from being harmed by pollution. |
Lesson Six: The use and abuse of animals
Christians believe that animals were created by God for humans to use and care for. Many believe God values animals but that humans are more important because they were created in the image of God, and have souls. The story of Noah and the flood shows this. God commanded Noah to take animals into the ark so they would be safe:
'' Take with you seven of every kind of clean animal, a male and its mate, and one pair of every kind of unclean animal, a male and its mate, and also seven pairs of every kind of bird, male and female, to keep their various kinds alive throughout the earth. '' Genesis 7:2-3 [NIV] However, after the flood Noah is given permission to eat meat: '' Everything that lives and moves about will be food for you. '' Genesis 9:3 [NIV] The Bible teaches that animals are to be treated kindly, for example: '' Do not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain. '' Deuteronomy 25:4 [NIV] '' The righteous care for the needs of their animals.... '' Proverbs 7 2: 7 0 [NIV] Animals are used by humans as pets, for transport and work, for food, sport, experimentation and entertainment. Scientists test new products, such as medicines, cosmetics and additives used in processed foods, on animals to check that they are safe for humans to use. Normally, if it is safe to use with chimpanzees, dogs or rabbits, it is likely to be safe for humans. But this is not always the case. For example, Ryan Wilson in 2006 was a volunteer in a drugs trial. The drug had previously been tested on animals and there were no ill effects, but Ryan Wilson reacted so badly that he was in a coma for two weeks, lost all his toes and the tops of some of his fingers. Testing cosmetics on animals was banned in the UK in 1998, and most Christians support this ban. Other types of animal testing have been reduced as scientists have developed alternative methods using computers or cell culture (cells that are grown. artificially). Most animal experiments that still occur are on mice or rats that are specially bred for the purpose. In modern societies Christians generally support limited animal testing, providing there is no other safe way to develop medicines and it is carried out as caringly as possible. Christians believe that all human life is sacred and should be treated with respect; using animals to develop new drugs may benefit millions of people and save many lives. In contrast to Christianity, Hinduism teaches that all living creatures have souls, not just humans, and all deserve to be protected. While the Hindu parents of a child may wish to benefit from animal research, this has to be balanced with the belief that some animals might contain the souls of ancestors. Many Hindus believe the cow to be a sacred animal, so no experiments would be permitted on a cow. According to Romans 14:2-3, Christians have the choice to be meat -eaters, vegetarians or vegans. They should also be sensitive to the beliefs of others about what they wish to eat. '' The one who eats everything [meat] must not treat with contempt the one who does not, and the one who does not eat everything must not judge the one who does, for God has accepted them. ' 'Romans 74:3 [NIV] Most Christians eat meat, as do around 90 per cent of people in the UK. Meat is a good source of protein, vitamins and minerals and the Bible does not teach that it is wrong to eat animals. Those who decide to be vegetarians or vegans usually do so because they are against killing animals, as they believe that animals should not be harmed. Others object to the animal cruelty that can occur in large factory farms. Some think eating vegetables is healthier. Some dislike the taste of meat. Others argue that if the land used to raise cattle for meat was used instead to grow vegetables, much more food would be produced. A vegan goes a step further and refuses to use any animal product, including milk, cheese, eggs, fur and leather. ' ' Are not five sparrows sold for two pennies? Yet not one of them is forgotten by God. ' ' Luke 7 2: 6 [NIV] |
The kind treatment of animals has always been important in Buddhism. Most Buddhists will try to show loving-kindness (metta) and compassion (karuna) in all their dealings with animals. Some of the reasons for this include the following:
• The first moral precept teaches that Buddhists should not kill or harm any living beings, including animals. • The Eightfold Path teaches that Buddhists should not make a living from work that harms others, including animals. • Treating animals cruelly is unskilful and will lead to suffering. Treating animals with kindness and compassion is skilful and will lead to happiness, and even a favourable rebirth. • Many Buddhists believe they could be reborn as animals. This means that any animal may have been a Buddhist in a past life. • The lives of humans and animals are so closely related and interwoven that it makes no sense to treat animals cruelly, because this could have a negative effect on society as a whole. Scientists conduct experiments on animals to check that new products, such as medicines, cosmetics and additives used in processed foods, are safe to use on humans. Testing cosmetics on animals was banned in the UK in 1998, and other types of animal testing have been reduced as scientists have developed alternative methods using computers or cell culture (cells that are grown artificially). Most animal experiments that still occur are on mice or rats that have been specially bred for the purpose. Buddhists differ in their opinions about animal testing. Some argue against it because of the reasons given above for why Buddhists believe in the kind treatment of animals. They feel there are alternative methods that scientists can use which do not result in animal cruelty. Others argue for it because they are aware that using animals to develop new drugs may benefit millions of people and save many lives. They believe that animal experimentation is important for developing medicines that help to reduce people's suffering, without causing any lethal side effects. Many Buddhists adopt an approach that animal testing is acceptable where it is absolutely necessary (i.e. there is no other safe alternative), and it is carried out as caringly as possible. • Buddhism and vegetarianism There are differing views in Buddhism about whether eating meat should be allowed. These seem to stem from inconsistencies in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, a number of scriptures include references to the Buddha and his monks eating meat. In Theravada Buddhism, the rules that monks and nuns have to follow (the Patimokkha) state that monks and nuns who rely on the donations and generosity of others to live-including gifts of food - should not be picky about what type of food they accept. Meat is fine to eat as long as the animal has not been killed on the monk or nun's behalf. In contrast, various Mahayana scriptures, including the Lankavatara Sutra and Mahaparinirvana Sutra, state that the Buddha insisted his followers should not eat any meat or fish, and that eating meat has negative effects. These scriptures argue that eating meat does not show compassion (an essential quality for achieving enlightenment), and that it spreads an atmosphere of fear among all living beings. '' All tremble at violence; all fear death. Comparing [others] with oneself, one should not kill or cause to kill. '' The Buddha in the Dhammapada, verse 129 In practice, many Buddhists are vegetarian or vegan, particularly those in the Mahayana tradition. Buddhists who do eat meat might argue that: • the Buddha would have been clearer about his views on eating meat if he thought that vegetarianism was important for achieving enlightenment • a person's diet is not an important factor in spiritual enlightenment • when a person eats meat, they are not directly responsible for the animal's death (unless they have actually killed the animal they are eating themselves, which almost all Buddhists would refuse to do). |
Lesson Seven: Abortion
Abortion is the removal of a foetus from the womb to end a pregnancy before the child is born. This happens naturally when a woman has a miscarriage, but abortion usually refers to the deliberate termination of a pregnancy through a medical procedure.
Before 196 7 abortion was illegal in the UK. It is now allowed up to the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy in a licensed clinic if two doctors agree that one of the following conditions applies: • The woman's life is in danger if the pregnancy continues. • There is a risk to the woman's physical and mental health. • There is a significant risk that the baby will be born with severe physical or mental disabilities. • An additional child may affect the physical or mental health of existing children in the family. There is no time limit if the mother's life is in danger or if the foetus is severely deformed. |
Pro-choice groups, such as Abortion Rights, believe that human life does not truly start until birth, or at the moment when the foetus becomes able to survive outside the womb. They argue that this means the mother's life is more valuable and should come first. They might say that since the mother carries the baby, goes through childbirth and looks after the child, she should have the right to choose whether she continues the pregnancy. These groups also believe it is cruel to bring a severely disabled child into the world if they will have a poor quality of life as a result.
Pro-life groups, such as the Society for the Protection of the Unborn Child (SPUC), argue that life begins at the moment of conception and abortion is therefore a form of murder. They believe that disabled people can enjoy a good quality of life with the right support, and that unwanted children could be adopted by those who are unable to have children of their own. |
Christians believe in the sanctity of life and that humans are made in the image of God. Life is sacred, precious and a God-given blessing. The Bible states that before birth, God has given each person a purpose in life:
'' Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart. '' Jeremiah 1 :5; see also Galatians 1:75 [NIV] Within Christianity there are some contrasting beliefs towards abortion. The Catholic Church and many evangelical Christians believe that life starts at conception. Abortion is therefore wrong and should not happen, except perhaps to save the woman's life. This is also the belief of Hinduism, which strongly opposes abortion. Other Christian denominations oppose abortion but believe that it is acceptable in some circumstances, for example if the pregnancy is the result of rape or if the child would be severely disabled. The Church of England and Methodist churches say that sometimes it is 'the lesser of two evils' and the kindest thing to do, for example if the quality of life of the baby looks as though it will be extremely poor . ' ' For you created my inmost being; you knit me together in my mother's womb. I praise you because I am fearfully and wonderfully made. '' Psalm 739:73-74[NIV] '' As God's chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, gentleness and patience. ' ' Colossians 3:12 [NIV] |
The first moral precept teaches that Buddhists should try to avoid killing, because it causes suffering to oneself and others. Buddhists vary in their thinking about when conscious life begins. Some believe it begins at the moment of conception, and others believe that consciousness is an unbroken flow from life to life. Either way, most Buddhists see abortion as a form of killing and therefore unskilful. The Buddha taught that unskilful behaviour is behaviour which does not lead towards the happiness, wisdom and compassion of enlightenment.
However, the five moral precepts are considered to be guidelines rather than commandments or rules that one either gets wrong or right. The Buddha wanted people to apply the five moral precepts thoughtfully, with sensitivity and flexibility depending on the situation. Abortion throws up a variety of complex ethical issues and no two cases are the same. Some Buddhists may feel that abortion is always unskilful. However, they may also feel that in a particular situation, having an abortion would be the best thing to do. An example might be if the baby is likely to be born with a serious disability, or if the mother already has several children she can hardly afford to care for, so the new child will have a poor quality of life as a result. Many Buddhists want to judge each situation on its own merits, and act in a way to minimise the suffering of those involved. They consider the potential emotional and physical suffering of both the parents and the child. This sometimes means balancing two kinds of harm and choosing which one seems lesser. We have also seen how personal choice is important in Buddhism. This means that while holding strong values about kindness and care, many Buddhists believe that deciding whether or not to have an abortion is a personal choice. Buddhist views on abortion also vary from country to country depending on social norms and traditions. |
Lesson Eight: Euthanasia
The word euthanasia comes from two Greek words: eu which means 'good' and thanatos which means 'death', so euthanasia means 'a good or gentle death'. The intention is to end the life of someone who is in pain or has a poor quality of life due to a serious illness.
Types of euthanasia • Voluntary euthanasia is when a person asks a doctor to end their life as they do not wish to live anymore. This is their own choice. • Non-voluntary euthanasia is when the person is too ill to request to die, for example because they are in a coma, but a doctor will end their life for them because it is thought to do so would be in the best interests of the person. • Involuntary euthanasia is when the person is able to provide consent but does not, either because they do not want to or because they are not asked, but their life is ended anyway. Forms of euthanasia • Active euthanasia is when active steps are taken to end someone's life, for example by giving them a lethal injection. • Passive euthanasia is when doctors stop providing treatment or do something that is intended to quicken the natural process of dying. For example, when a person is not resuscitated after a heart attack. All forms of euthanasia are currently illegal in the UK and treated as murder or manslaughter. However a medical decision may be made to withhold treatment if it is considered to be in a patient's best interests. In Britain such action would not be considered euthanasia. Many Buddhists are against euthanasia because it breaks the first moral precept. However, views towards euthanasia vary between Buddhists and may depend on the circumstances in which euthanasia is carried out. Buddhists would be guided by the following considerations when deciding what they think about euthanasia.
The first moral precept The first moral precept states that Buddhists should not kill or harm any living being. Many Buddhists are against euthanasia for this reason. Personal choice Buddhism emphasises personal choice and responsibility. Some Buddhists argue that if a person has a clear mind and is not affected by any outside pressure, they should be allowed to choose what to do with their own life, including whether to end it or not Karma, rebirth and suffering Buddhism teaches that when a person dies, their consciousness passes on into a new life. According to the teaching of kamma, in this new life a person will experience the consequences of the skilful or unskilful actions in their previous lives. This could mean that the person being reborn would suffer as a consequence of the forced ending of their previous life. Compassion (Karuna) Compassion is an important quality for Buddhists. Some Buddhists would argue that it is compassionate to help someone to die, to end their suffering. Others might argue, also out of compassion, that ending a person's life may relieve their suffering in the short term, but lead to more suffering in the future. State of mind Buddhism teaches that it is important to have a calm and positive state of mind at the moment of death, as this is something that influences a person's rebirth. If a person is helped to die quickly and peacefully, it could be argued that this is beneficial for their future consciousness. Equally, there may be other times when euthanasia is chosen for the wrong reasons, because a person's suffering is negatively influencing their state of mind. In such instances it might be better to use meditation, combined with strong painkillers, for example, to manage pain while gradually approaching a natural death. All of these factors and more influence a Buddhist's approach to euthanasia. Many Buddhists' attitudes towards this issue can be summed up by the Dalai Lama's thoughts. In 1993 he said that it was best to avoid euthanasia except in exceptional circumstances (such as when a person is in a coma with no hope of recovery), and that it should be considered on a case-by-case basis. |
The Right to Die
In September 2015, the British Parliament rejected plans for a 'right to die' law in England and Wales. 118 MPs were in favour and 330 against allowing some terminally ill adults to end their lives with medical supervision. The vote followed a passionate debate; some argued that a 'dignified and peaceful death' should be allowed. Sarah Wootton, the chief executive of Dignity in Dying, called the result an 'outrage' as she claimed MPs had gone against public opinion. Dr Peter Saunders, campaign director of Care Not Killing, was delighted with the outcome, saying that it was necessary to protect the depressed, disabled, elderly and sick. Many Christians believe that taking a life is interfering with God's plan. They think it is comparable to murder and open to abuse. For example, if euthanasia was legalised, it could potentially lead to those who are very old feeling pressure to ask for euthanasia in order not to burden their families. Most Christians believe that euthanasia is against the sanctity of life, and only God has the right to take life away at a chosen time.
Modern drugs and hospice care provide the dying with a chance to end their lives with dignity and without pain. Where suffering is unavoidable, some Christians say that this can bring people nearer to God and can help them to understand the suffering of Jesus. '' All people deserve compassion and care in their suffering and dying. Euthanasia and assisted suicide should not, however, be considered acceptable responses. They undermine human dignity and are morally wrong. ' ' The Salvation Army Some Christians do support euthanasia and believe that the drugs that are used to end a suffering person's life are God-given, and should be used if it is the most loving thing to do. They believe that God has given people free will so they should be able to choose when to end their lives. This contrasts with the beliefs of Islam, which strictly forbid euthanasia in any form. Blessed are the merciful. Matthew 5:7 [NIV] ... all the days ordained for me were written in your book before one of them came to be. Psalm 7 39:7 6 [NIV] 'You shall not murder. ' ' Exodus 20:7 3 [NIV]
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Lesson Nine: Death and the Afterlife
Celebrating a human life
Just like anyone else, Buddhists experience grief and loss at the death of people they love or admire. It may take them a long time to get over their loss, even if they are used to thinking about life as change and impermanence, and death as another example of this. Even for someone who is very at home with the idea of death, it will be important to celebrate the qualities and achievements of the person who has died and express gratitude for their life. This is a very important part of saying goodbye and reminding people of the meaning of a human life. Buddhist teachings about death Buddhist traditions differ on what exactly happens when a person dies. However, most teach that death is not a single final moment but a process of transition in which consciousness passes on from the physical body over a period of hours or days. This means it is important to most Buddhists that a person dies as peacefully as possible, and that the body is left in peace for many hours after the point at which medical opinion would regard the person as dead. The question is, what happens next? Rebirth Some Buddhists today doubt the possibility of rebirth. However, most traditions teach that for those who are not yet perfect in wisdom and compassion, there are more lives to live in which to keep making progress towards enlightenment. So, in some mysterious way, days, weeks or months after death, the dead person's consciousness enters another life at the point of its conception . What then happens is said to depend partly on the skilful or unskilful habits cultivated in this lifetime and previous lives. Traditionally, skilful behaviour is said to help Buddhists to build up a store of 'merit'. This merit will lead to good fortune in future lives. '' At the hour of death, the king and the beggar are exactly equal in that no amount of relatives or possessions can affect or prevent death. But who is the richer at the time of death? If the beggar has created more merits, then although he looks materially poor he is really the rich man. '' Thubten Zopa Rinpoche (Nepalese Buddhist monk) Many Buddhists believe that what happens after death depends strongly on their state of mind when they die. Particularly in Tibetan Buddhism it is believed that, as consciousness leaves the body, there is an opportunity to choose the freedom of enlightenment instead of another human life. For both these reasons, and also because death can occur at any time, it is believed to be important to do one's best to live kindly and with awareness in every moment. Enlightenment The Buddha said he had lived many lives before he reached the life in which he became the Buddha. Life after life, becoming more and more kind, more fearless, more generous and more subtly conscious, he progressed towards Buddhahood. Following his enlightenment, there were no more physical lives to live. The Buddha broke the cycle of samsara- once he achieved enlightenment and then died, he was not reborn in a physical body. Nothing more can be said about what happens to an enlightened Buddhist after death, since nobody knows what happens; the Buddha himself refused to say what happens after death to someone who has been enlightened. '' Having reached perfection, fearless, without craving, without blemish, he has cut off the darts of existence. This body is his last. '' The Buddha in the Dhammapada, verse 351 |
Is death the end?
Generally atheists believe that at death one ceases to exist. They do not believe there is an afterlife and do not believe that people have souls. Christians believe that death is not the end and that God judges whether a person will spend eternity in heaven or in hell. The Catholic Church believes in purgatory, where souls undergo purification in order to achieve the holiness necessary to approach God and enter heaven. Some Christians believe in immediate judgement on death and the transition to heaven or hell; others believe that they will wait until the Day of Judgement and the return of Jesus. Some Christians believe that they will be in heaven in their physical bodies, but others believe that it is their souls that live on for eternity. Christians point to the resurrection of Jesus as evidence of an afterlife (see John 11:25). The Apostle's Creed reads, 'I believe in the resurrection of the body'. Christians believe that heaven is indescribably wonderful and is where God resides. Revelation 4:2-6 describes John's vision of the throne room of God where he sees everyone worshipping God. Revelation 21:4 says that God will 'wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away.' What is hell like? The Bible says that hell was originally designed for Satan and his demons: 'Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels.' (Matthew 25:41). It is also described as a place of punishment for the unrighteous: 'throw them into the blazing furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.' (Matthew 13:50). Revelation describes hell as a place of torment: 'the smoke of their torment will rise for ever and ever. There will be no rest day or night' (Revelation 14:11). There are different Christian interpretations of these descriptions. Some take them as literally true. Many think they symbolise the frustration of not being able to be in the presence of God. Hell is portrayed as something to be avoided. Eternity in Heaven Christianity teaches that seeking an eternity in heaven is more important than any other ambition: 'What good is it for someone to gain the whole world, yet forfeit their soul?' (Mark 8:36). How is it possible to get to heaven? Christians believe that God is holy, and the relationship between himself and his people is broken by sin. To overcome this, God sent Jesus to die on a cross to conquer sin and death. The price for salvation was paid by Jesus' death, so that those who put their faith and trust in him might be forgiven and have eternal life in heaven. Christians believe that heaven is not gained simply by being a good person, but is a free gift to those who believe and put their trust in Jesus (see Romans 10:9-10). Many Christians believe that following Jesus still means living a life of doing good and avoiding sin (see Colossians 3: 5-8), but salvation does not have to be earned. ' For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. '' John 3:76 [NIV] |